Brain

This image displays the lateral aspect of the human brain, highlighting the cerebral cortex’s lobes and some key gyri and sulci, as well as other significant brain structures. The central sulcus, a prominent landmark, separates the frontal lobe, shown in blue, from the parietal lobe, shown in green. Anterior to the central sulcus, the precentral gyrus, known as the primary motor cortex, is responsible for voluntary motor function. Posterior to the central sulcus, the postcentral gyrus represents the primary somatosensory cortex, essential for processing tactile information.

The frontal lobe, responsible for complex cognitive functions, includes the middle frontal gyrus and the frontal pole. The superior temporal gyrus and the temporal pole are part of the temporal lobe, shown in yellow, which is involved in auditory processing and memory. The middle and inferior temporal gyri are also part of the temporal lobe and play roles in object recognition and semantic memory.

Beneath the temporal lobe, the cerebellum, depicted in orange, is critical for motor control and coordination. The brainstem, which includes the medulla oblongata, controls many autonomic functions and connects the brain to the spinal cord.

The superior parietal lobule, angular gyrus, and submarginal gyrus are part of the parietal lobe and are involved in spatial orientation and perception. The occipital lobe, shown in brown, includes the occipital pole and is the primary visual processing center.

This diagram serves as a valuable educational tool to understand the topographical organization of the human brain and the basic functions associated with its different regions.

This image is a cross-sectional model of the human brain, color-coded to illustrate various anatomical regions and structures. Each color represents a different area:

  • The frontal lobe, highlighted in green, is responsible for executive functions such as reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem-solving.
  • Behind the frontal lobe is the parietal lobe, shown in yellow, which processes sensory information such as touch, spatial awareness, and navigation.
  • The occipital lobe, in red, located at the back of the brain, is primarily responsible for visual processing.
  • The temporal lobe, in blue, located beneath the lateral fissure, is involved in the processing of auditory information, memory, and speech.
  • Deep within the brain, the corpus callosum, depicted in green, is a wide band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres, allowing for communication between them.
  • The thalamus, just below the corpus callosum in the center, acts as the brain’s relay station, channeling sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex, and is involved in the regulation of consciousness and sleep.
  • The hypothalamus, situated below the thalamus, controls numerous autonomic functions such as temperature regulation, thirst, hunger, and sleep patterns.
  • The pituitary gland, which is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus, is often referred to as the “master gland” because it regulates various bodily functions by releasing hormones into the bloodstream.
  • The cerebellum, in orange, located at the base of the brain, is crucial for balance, coordination, and fine motor control.
  • The brainstem includes the medulla oblongata and the pons, shown in white. The medulla oblongata is involved in regulating vital bodily functions, such as heart rate and breathing. The pons is a part of the brainstem that links the medulla oblongata and the thalamus and is involved in the control of breathing, communication between different parts of the brain, and sensations such as hearing, taste, and balance.

Overall, this model provides a simplified, yet effective representation of the brain’s complex anatomy, useful for educational purposes to understand the basic functions and locations of these critical areas.

The image presents a schematic representation of the human body’s thermoregulation process, which is the mechanism by which the body maintains its core internal temperature. At the center of this process is the hypothalamus, which is located in the brain and acts as the thermoregulatory center. It receives input about the body’s temperature from two main sources: thermoreceptors, which detect temperature changes, and blood temperature, which is monitored internally.

The hypothalamus then processes this information and activates effector nerves to initiate responses to adjust the body’s temperature. These responses are divided into physical mechanisms of temperature regulation and mechanisms of metabolic regulation of body temperature:

  1. Physical mechanisms involve:

    • Arterioles in the skin: The hypothalamus can cause these blood vessels to dilate or constrict, affecting heat loss or retention.
    • Erector muscle of hair: The activation of these muscles can cause hair to stand up, trapping more heat close to the body.
    • Sweat glands: The hypothalamus can stimulate sweating, which cools the body as the sweat evaporates off the skin surface.
  2. Metabolic mechanisms involve:

    • Skeletal muscle: The hypothalamus can trigger shivering, which is the rapid contraction of muscles to generate heat.
    • Adrenal medulla: This gland can release adrenaline, which increases the metabolic rate and heat production.
    • Thyroid: The hypothalamus can influence the thyroid gland to release thyroxine, which also increases the metabolic rate and heat production.

These systems work in concert to ensure that the body’s temperature remains within a narrow, optimal range, despite external temperature changes. This process is crucial for the proper functioning of enzymatic reactions and overall physiological processes.

The image displays an anatomical overview of the hypothalamus and its relationship to the pituitary gland and surrounding brain structures. The hypothalamus is highlighted within the brain, indicating its position deep within the cerebral structure.

Several nuclei of the hypothalamus are color-coded and labeled:

  • The paraventricular nucleus, which is involved in the regulation of several functions including the release of hormones from the pituitary gland, stress response, and appetite control.
  • The ventromedial nucleus plays a critical role in satiety and body weight regulation.
  • The anterior nucleus, which is implicated in temperature regulation.
  • The suprachiasmatic nucleus, which is known as the body’s “master clock,” regulating circadian rhythms and the sleep-wake cycle.
  • The preoptic nucleus (medial), which is involved in thermoregulation and sexual behavior.

Below the hypothalamus, the optic chiasm is shown where the optic nerves cross. The mammillary body, which is part of the limbic system, is involved in memory formation. The supraoptic nucleus, not to be confused with the suprachiasmatic nucleus, is important for the production of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which regulates water balance in the body.

The image also shows the pituitary gland, often termed the “master gland,” as it secretes hormones that regulate many of the body’s functions, including growth, metabolism, and reproduction. The gland is connected to the hypothalamus, illustrating the close relationship between these two structures in hormone regulation and the endocrine system as a whole.

This educational illustration serves to show the complexity and the essential roles of the hypothalamus in maintaining homeostasis through its interactions with the endocrine and nervous systems.

The image provides a detailed view of the limbic system in the human brain, a complex set of structures that play a key role in emotion, behavior, and memory, along with the basal ganglia and thalamus, which are closely associated with the limbic system functionally.

At the forefront of the limbic system, colored in red, is the cingulate gyrus, which is involved in emotional processing and regulation. Beneath it, the orange structure represents the fornix, a bundle of nerve fibers that carry signals from the hippocampus to the mammillary bodies and other parts of the brain.

The amygdala, shown in green, is a critical component of the limbic system associated with memory, decision-making, and emotional responses, including fear and pleasure. It is deeply embedded within the temporal lobe and has extensive connections with other brain regions.

Colored in blue, the hypothalamus sits below the thalamus and is not traditionally part of the limbic system but is closely connected to it. The hypothalamus controls body temperature, hunger, fatigue, sleep, and plays a significant role in the endocrine system, regulating the release of hormones.

On the bottom right, in yellow, is the hippocampus, vital for memory formation and spatial navigation. It’s one of the first regions affected in diseases such as Alzheimer’s, leading to the characteristic early memory loss.

The basal ganglia, located deep within the cerebral hemispheres and labeled in the upper right, are a group of nuclei involved in the control of voluntary motor movements, procedural learning, habit formation, cognition, emotion, and eye movements.

Finally, the thalamus, labeled in the upper right and not colored, acts as the brain’s relay station for sensory and motor signals (except for the sense of smell) and is also crucial for the regulation of sleep, consciousness, and alertness.

This illustration is an educational tool, simplifying the complex interrelations and functions of these brain regions to give a foundational understanding of the limbic system’s role in human behavior and emotional processing.

This image provides a clear visualization of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the central nervous system. The CSF is depicted in blue, highlighting its flow through and around the brain and spinal cord.

The brain’s ventricles, a series of interconnected, fluid-filled spaces, produce CSF which then circulates through these ventricles. From the lateral ventricles, the CSF flows into the third ventricle, then through the cerebral aqueduct into the fourth ventricle, and finally into the subarachnoid space surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

The superior sagittal sinus, a blood-filled space running along the top of the brain within the dura mater, is where the CSF is reabsorbed into the bloodstream via structures called arachnoid villi. These villi act as one-way valves to allow CSF to exit the subarachnoid space and enter the venous system.

Surrounding the central nervous system is the subarachnoid space, where the CSF provides a cushioning effect, protecting the brain and spinal cord from trauma. This space is located between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater, two of the three membranes that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord.

The central canal of the spinal cord is also filled with CSF and runs the length of the spinal cord. The spinal cord itself, protected by the vertebral column, extends from the base of the skull to the lower back and is the main pathway for transmitting information between the brain and the body.

Cerebrospinal fluid is essential for the homeostasis of the central nervous system. It provides buoyancy to the brain, effectively reducing its weight and preventing the brain from being crushed under its own weight. It also serves to transport nutrients to the brain and remove waste products.

The illustration effectively demonstrates the crucial role of CSF in brain and spinal cord function and protection.

The illustration provides a cross-sectional view of the meningeal layers and subarachnoid space within the human head, detailing the relationship between the meninges, blood vessels, and brain tissue.

At the topmost layer, we see the cranial vault bones, which form the skull’s protective casing. Directly beneath the bone is the dura mater, the outermost and toughest of the three meningeal layers that envelop the brain and spinal cord.

The arachnoid layer is depicted just below the dura mater. It is named for its web-like appearance and is the middle meningeal layer. This layer is important for providing a protective barrier and is separated from the pia mater by the subarachnoid space, which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

The arachnoid granulations (or villi) are shown protruding into the dura mater. These structures are responsible for the reabsorption of CSF into the venous blood system, allowing for the drainage of CSF from the subarachnoid space into the venous circulation.

Beneath the arachnoid, the subarachnoid space is visible, which houses the CSF and acts as a cushion for the brain, providing it with mechanical protection.

The innermost layer is the pia mater, a delicate membrane that closely adheres to the surface of the brain, following its contours and blood vessels into the sulci, or grooves, of the cerebral cortex. The pia mater works in conjunction with the other meningeal layers to protect and encapsulate the central nervous system.

This visual aid serves to explain the protective and supportive roles of the meningeal layers, particularly the arachnoid membrane, as well as the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid within the brain’s ventricular system. It emphasizes the importance of these structures in maintaining the brain’s environment and protecting it from physical damage and chemical imbalances.

This image is a sagittal section of the human head, providing an internal view of the brain and some of its key structures.

Highlighted in the illustration is the corpus callosum, the thick band of nerve fibers that connects the two cerebral hemispheres, allowing for communication between them. Above it lies the choroid plexus, which is a network of cells that produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), vital for cushioning the brain and maintaining a stable environment within the central nervous system.

The thalamus, a dual lobed mass of gray matter, is visible beneath the corpus callosum. The thalamus acts as the main relay station for sensory impulses to the cerebral cortex. It plays a crucial role in the processing and transmission of sensory information to the appropriate higher brain centers.

Beneath the thalamus is the pineal gland, a small endocrine gland that secretes the hormone melatonin, which regulates sleep patterns.

Also shown is the aqueduct mesencephali (also known as the cerebral aqueduct), a narrow channel that connects the third and fourth ventricles of the brain, allowing for the passage of CSF.

The quadrigemina, part of the tectum in the midbrain, comprises the superior and inferior colliculi, which are responsible for visual and auditory reflexes respectively.

The image also provides a view of the nasal and oral cavities, illustrating the relationship of the brain to these structures in the head.

This visual aid serves an educational purpose, detailing the anatomical positioning of these various brain structures and their relative positions to each other, which is important for understanding their functions within the central nervous system.

The image is an educational illustration that explains the layers of protection surrounding the human brain. At the top, there is a detailed cross-section that labels the layers from the outermost to the innermost, starting with the skin and ending with the brain surface.

The outermost layer, labeled as ‘5’, is the skin, which provides the first line of defense against external environmental factors. Below the skin is ‘4’, the aponeurosis, which is a layer of fibrous tissue that helps anchor the skin to the tissues underneath it.

Beneath the aponeurosis is ‘3’, the periosteum, a dense layer of vascular connective tissue that envelops the bones of the skull. The periosteum contains blood vessels that supply bone cells with nutrients.

Under the periosteum is ‘2’, the bone, specifically the skull bones, which form a rigid protective housing for the brain.

The superior sagittal sinus, marked as ‘1’, is a venous sinus located within the layers of the dura mater. It plays a critical role in draining venous blood from the brain to the internal jugular vein.

The layers of the meninges are highlighted on the lower part of the cross-section. The dura mater is the tough and durable outermost layer of the meninges that provides a protective covering for the brain. The arachnoid mater is the middle layer, and it is depicted as a thin, web-like structure that cushions the central nervous system. Between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater lies the subarachnoid space, which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

The innermost layer is the pia mater, which is a thin, delicate membrane that closely adheres to the brain’s contours. It is not labeled in the diagram but can be inferred as the layer directly covering the brain tissue.

Below the cross-section, the image shows an outline of a head with an inset box indicating the area of the cross-section above, providing context for the location of these protective layers. This visual aid is commonly used to teach about the meninges and the protective coverings of the brain.

The image provides a detailed sagittal section of the human head, showcasing the relationship between the eye, the optic nerve, and parts of the brain.

The optic nerve is depicted as it extends from the back of the eye, carrying visual information from the retina to the brain. It then meets the optic chiasm (Chiasma opticum), which is a critical juncture where the optic nerves from both eyes partially cross. This structure allows visual information from both eyes to be processed on both sides of the brain, enabling binocular vision.

The pituitary gland (Glandula pituitaria), often referred to as the “master gland,” is shown beneath the optic chiasm. This gland produces hormones that regulate a variety of bodily functions, including growth, metabolism, and reproductive processes.

The hypothalamus, located just above the pituitary gland, is a crucial component of the brain for maintaining homeostasis. It regulates various autonomic functions, such as temperature control, thirst, hunger, sleep, and emotional activity.

This illustration is particularly useful for understanding the anatomical positioning and connectivity of the optic nerve, optic chiasm, pituitary gland, and hypothalamus, as well as their proximity to each other. These structures’ interrelation is essential for functions such as vision, hormone production, and the regulation of the body’s internal environment.

The image provides a comprehensive view of the cerebellum and its functional regions, as well as a lateral view of the brain showing the position of the cerebellum relative to other structures.

On the left side of the image, the cerebellum is divided into the anterior and posterior lobes, separated by the primary fissure. The cerebellum is responsible for regulating motor movements, coordinating voluntary movements, and maintaining posture, balance, and speech. Within the anterior lobe, the illustration shows the cerebellar peduncles, which are nerve tracts that communicate between the cerebellum and other parts of the brain, as well as the spinal cord. The superior, middle, and inferior cerebellar peduncles are labeled to indicate their relative positions.

The nodulus and the tonsil, which are parts of the cerebellar structure involved in processing vestibular inputs for balance, are also shown, along with the flocculus, which is involved in motor control. The fourth ventricle of the brain, a fluid-filled cavity that helps protect the brain from trauma and transports cerebrospinal fluid, is also depicted.

On the right side, the lateral view of the brain shows the cerebellum at the back of the head, underneath the larger cerebrum. It’s connected to the brainstem via the pons, which is involved in motor control and sensory analysis. The medulla oblongata is also shown; it regulates vital functions such as breathing and heart rate.

The illustration also features the arbor vitae, which refers to the distinctive tree-like arrangement of white matter in the cerebellum. This structure is crucial for the coordination of signals in the cerebellum. The cerebellar cortex is the outer layer of the cerebellum, which processes information from the spinal cord and other parts of the brain.

Overall, this illustration serves as an educational tool, providing insights into the anatomy and functions of the cerebellum, as well as its connections to the central nervous system.

The image is a lateral view of the human head, depicting a color-coded brain with labels indicating various lobes and their associated functions. Each lobe of the brain is responsible for different cognitive and sensory activities:

  • The frontal lobe, colored in blue, is associated with movement, intelligence, reasoning, behavior, memory, and personality. This lobe is critical for voluntary motor activity, decision-making, and moderating social behavior.

  • The temporal lobe, shown in green, is involved with speech, behavior, memory, hearing, vision, and emotions. It plays a significant role in processing auditory information and is also important for the encoding of memory.

  • The parietal lobe, illustrated in yellow, is linked to intelligence, recognizing the difference between right and left, language, sensation, and reading. It integrates sensory information from various modalities, particularly determining spatial sense and navigation.

  • The occipital lobe, in red, is primarily responsible for vision. It processes visual data and helps in the recognition of shapes and colors.

  • The cerebellum, shown in purple, located at the back of the brain beneath the occipital lobes, is essential for balance, coordination, and fine muscle control. It is involved in the regulation and coordination of movement, posture, and balance.

  • The brain stem, which is not color-coded in the image, controls basic life functions such as breathing, blood pressure, heartbeat, and swallowing.

The image also indicates the skull, which encases and protects the brain, and the blood vessels, which supply the brain with necessary nutrients and oxygen.

Overall, this visual aid helps in understanding the basic functions attributed to different parts of the brain and how they contribute to the overall functioning of the human body.

This image provides a focused view of the pituitary gland, also known as the hypophysis, within the context of its surrounding brain structures.

On the left side, a sagittal section of the brain shows the location of the pituitary gland at the base of the hypothalamus, just below the optic chiasm where the optic nerves cross above the gland.

The right side of the image presents an enlarged, detailed view of the pituitary gland, highlighting its three primary components:

  • The anterior pituitary lobe (also known as the adenohypophysis), which produces and releases a variety of hormones such as growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, prolactin, and endorphins. These hormones regulate several physiological processes including stress, growth, reproduction, and lactation.

  • The pars intermedia, which is a small part of the gland not always distinct in humans, lies between the anterior and posterior pituitary. It has a role in the release of melanocyte-stimulating hormone in some species.

  • The posterior pituitary lobe (also known as the neurohypophysis), which stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus, such as antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin) and oxytocin.

Additionally, the image identifies the mammillary body and the hypothalamus, which are part of the limbic system and play roles in memory and emotional response, as well as in hormonal and autonomic control.

Overall, this illustration is an effective educational tool, explaining the anatomy of the pituitary gland and emphasizing its role as a central part of the endocrine system, influencing a wide range of bodily functions.

The image illustrates a coronal section of the brain, specifically focusing on the limbic system, which is involved in emotion, memory, and behavior. The components are color-coded to indicate different structures within the limbic system:

  • The cingulate gyrus, part of the cerebral cortex, lies above the corpus callosum and is involved in processing emotions and behavior regulation.

  • The corpus callosum, the large band of neural fibers beneath the cingulate gyrus, connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres and facilitates interhemispheric communication.

  • The fornix is a C-shaped bundle of nerve fibers that acts as a major output tract of the hippocampus. The fornix and inner arc, highlighted in red, carry signals from the hippocampus to the mammillary bodies and other parts of the brain.

  • The hippocampus, shown in dark red, is critical for the formation of new memories and is also associated with learning and emotions.

  • The amygdala, indicated by the small red structure, is responsible for emotions, survival instincts, and memory.

  • The mammillary body, part of the diencephalon located near the base of the brain, is involved in memory recall.

  • The septum pellucidum, a thin, triangular, vertical double membrane separating the anterior horns of the left and right lateral ventricles of the brain, is involved in the limbic system’s function.

  • The indusium griseum is a thin layer of grey matter that lies on the surface of the corpus callosum.

  • The parahippocampal gyrus, part of the limbic system, plays a role in memory encoding and retrieval.

  • The anterior commissure is a bundle of fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain, apart from the corpus callosum, and is involved in pain, olfactory, and other sensory processing.

  • The subcallosal area is a region below the corpus callosum, involved in emotion and cognition.

  • The paraterminal gyrus is a cortical structure on the medial surface of the brain’s frontal lobe and is part of the limbic system.

The image provides a comprehensive overview of the limbic system’s anatomy and highlights the intricate relationships between its various parts. It is a valuable educational resource for understanding the structural basis of complex emotional and memory processes in the human brain.

The image illustrates a lateral view of the human brain, highlighting the frontal lobe and other major areas with their associated functions.

The frontal lobe, prominently shaded and labeled, is responsible for higher cognitive functions such as judgment, foresight, and voluntary movement. Within this lobe, the motor cortex is indicated, which controls movement. Also noted in the frontal lobe is Broca’s area, which is crucial for speech production.

The central sulcus, a prominent groove on the surface of the brain, is marked, separating the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe. The parietal lobe, associated with processing sensory information such as touch, temperature, and pain, is labeled above the central sulcus.

Just behind the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe is identified, which is primarily involved in visual processing. The image also shows the cerebellum at the back of the brain, beneath the occipital lobe, which is responsible for balance and coordination of movement.

The temporal lobe is situated below the frontal and parietal lobes, marked by the lateral fissure. It plays a key role in auditory processing, memory, and integrating sensory input.

Finally, the brainstem is depicted below the cerebellum, which controls many basic life functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

The image serves as an educational tool to outline the basic regions of the brain and to give an overview of the primary responsibilities of each area, particularly emphasizing the role of the frontal lobe in complex behaviors and motor function.

The illustration provides a detailed depiction of the brain’s blood supply. Central to this vascular arrangement is the Circle of Willis, a ring-like arterial structure that sits at the base of the brain and provides collateral blood flow between the anterior and posterior circulation of the brain.

Arteries that contribute to the Circle of Willis include:

  • The internal carotid arteries, which ascend into the brain from the neck and branch into smaller arteries, including the anterior and middle cerebral arteries.
  • The anterior cerebral arteries, which travel upward and forward from the Circle of Willis, supply the medial portions of the frontal lobes and superior medial parietal lobes.
  • The middle cerebral arteries, the largest branches of the internal carotid, course laterally into the lateral sulcus (Sylvian fissure) and supply the lateral aspects of the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes.
  • The posterior cerebral arteries, which arise from the basilar artery, supply blood to the occipital lobes, the undersides of the temporal lobes, and various deep brain structures.

The basilar artery, formed by the union of the two vertebral arteries, ascends along the brainstem and provides branches to the brainstem and cerebellum before dividing into the posterior cerebral arteries.

The vertebral arteries, not visible in this illustration, enter the skull through the foramen magnum and merge to form the basilar artery. They are part of the posterior circulation, which supplies the posterior part of the brain.

The anterior and posterior inferior cerebellar arteries, branches of the basilar and vertebral arteries, supply blood to the cerebellum.

This network of arteries ensures the brain receives a constant, uninterrupted blood supply, which is essential for its functions. The Circle of Willis also plays a critical role in compensating for blockages or narrowings in the major arterial supply routes to the brain, which can help prevent strokes and other cerebrovascular events.

The image provides a comparative view of a healthy neuron and brain versus those affected by Alzheimer’s disease.

In the top left, a healthy neuron is shown with dendrites, which receive signals from other neurons, and an axon, which sends signals to other neurons. The axon’s internal support structure, the microtubules, are intact, and tau proteins, which stabilize these microtubules, are in their normal state.

Below, a diseased neuron is depicted with abnormalities typical in Alzheimer’s disease. The microtubules are disintegrating, leading to the collapse of the neuron’s transport system. Tau proteins have become abnormal and form neurofibrillary tangles, which interfere with the neuron’s function and lead to cell death. Amyloid plaques, which are clumps of protein fragments that accumulate outside of neurons, are also present. These plaques and tangles disrupt communication between neurons and are hallmarks of Alzheimer’s disease.

On the top right, a healthy brain section shows normal-sized ventricles (fluid-filled spaces in the brain) and a well-preserved hippocampus, which is involved in memory formation.

The bottom right illustrates the brain affected by Alzheimer’s disease, showing severe cortical shrinkage due to the loss of neurons and synapses. The ventricles are enlarged as a result of brain tissue loss, and there is severe shrinkage of the hippocampus, reflecting the memory deficits characteristic of Alzheimer’s disease.

This visual comparison is an educational tool for understanding the structural changes in the brain and neurons associated with Alzheimer’s disease, which underlie the symptoms of memory loss, cognitive decline, and changes in behavior and personality.

The image illustrates a medical condition related to the cerebral circulation, specifically a blockage in the brain’s blood supply. On the left side, a profile of a human head is shown with the brain exposed, highlighting the vascular system within it. A marked area on the brain indicates a region of temporarily blocked blood flow, suggesting ischemia, where blood supply (and thus oxygen) is restricted.

The close-up view on the right provides a detailed look at the blockage within a blood vessel. Here, it shows a blood clot lodged in the middle cerebral artery, which is a branch of the internal carotid artery that supplies a significant portion of the brain’s outer layer. The blockage in the internal carotid artery itself can lead to a significant reduction in blood flow to the brain, potentially resulting in a stroke.

This blockage can cause an ischemic stroke, which occurs when an artery to the brain is blocked, preventing oxygen and nutrients from reaching a portion of the brain. Brain cells in the affected area can die, resulting in permanent damage. Immediate medical attention is critical to restore blood flow and minimize brain damage.

The illustration is designed to educate on the serious impact of cerebrovascular accidents and the importance of understanding the vascular anatomy of the brain for both prevention and treatment of such events.

It appears there’s been a sequence of images uploaded, each depicting different aspects of the brain’s anatomy and functions. However, without specific instructions for the latest image, I’ll give a general explanation based on what the previous images have covered:

The illustrations provided have detailed various brain structures, from the cerebral lobes to the blood vessels supplying the brain. They’ve also depicted comparisons between a healthy brain and one affected by Alzheimer’s disease, demonstrating the characteristic changes such as cortical shrinkage and ventricle enlargement. Additionally, they’ve shown the impact of a stroke, where a blood clot can block an artery and interrupt blood flow, potentially leading to an infarcted area in the brain.

In terms of neural function, the images have highlighted how neurons work in healthy states and how they are affected by disease. They’ve also provided insight into the mechanism of pain perception within the brain, illustrating how signals from peripheral neurons are interpreted as pain by central neurons in the brain.

Each image serves as a visual education tool, demonstrating the complexity of the brain’s structure and the importance of its blood supply, the intricacies of neuronal pathways, and the profound effects of neurological diseases. These images are typically used in educational settings to help students and healthcare professionals visualize and better understand the complex workings of the brain.

The image illustrates the two main types of strokes: ischemic and hemorrhagic.

On the left, an ischemic stroke is depicted, characterized by the blockage of blood vessels, leading to a lack of blood flow to the affected area of the brain. This blockage is often due to a blood clot, and the region of the brain that is deprived of blood becomes damaged or dies, which is illustrated by the blue shaded area in the brain.

On the right, a hemorrhagic stroke is shown, where there is a rupture of blood vessels, causing leakage of blood into the brain. This leaked blood can cause damage to brain cells, and the pressure buildup from the leaked blood can lead to further injury. The area of bleeding is indicated by the red shading in the brain.

In the smaller insets, close-up views of the blood vessels show the specific pathology of each type of stroke. For the ischemic stroke, a clot is obstructing the inside of the blood vessel. For the hemorrhagic stroke, there is a break in the vessel wall with blood escaping into the surrounding tissue.

Understanding the differences between these two types of strokes is crucial for medical diagnosis and treatment. Ischemic strokes, which are more common, often require treatment to remove the blockage, while hemorrhagic strokes may require surgery to repair the damaged blood vessels and alleviate pressure caused by the bleeding.

The image is an informative illustration about meningitis, an inflammation of the membranes (meninges) surrounding the brain and spinal cord. The diagram provides a cross-sectional view of the brain, showing the inflammation in the dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater.

It also lists the pathogenic agents that can enter through the blood and cause this condition. Meningitis can be caused by various infectious agents, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.

The symptoms of meningitis are grouped into different categories in the image:

  • Systematic symptoms include high fever, seizures, stiff neck, sleepiness, or difficulty waking up.
  • Central symptoms are headaches and altered mental status.
  • Eye-related symptoms include sensitivity to light.
  • Ear symptoms can include phonophobia or an extreme sensitivity to sound.
  • Skin symptoms may present as paleness, spots, or rash.
  • Muscular symptoms include severe muscle pain.
  • Stomach-related symptoms are nausea and vomiting.

The complications of meningitis are severe and can include hearing loss, memory difficulties, learning disabilities, brain damage, gait problems, seizures, kidney failure, shock, and even death.

This visual aid is crucial for understanding the seriousness of meningitis and the importance of early detection and treatment to prevent these potential complications.

TermDefinition
Adrenal MedullaGland that releases adrenaline, increasing metabolic rate and heat production.
AmygdalaBrain region involved in emotional responses, memory, and decision-making.
Angular GyrusParietal lobe structure involved in spatial orientation and perception.
Anterior NucleusHypothalamic area implicated in temperature regulation.
Anterior Pituitary LobePituitary gland part that produces various hormones for physiological processes.
Arbor VitaeTree-like arrangement of white matter in the cerebellum, crucial for signal coordination.
ArteriolesBlood vessels in the skin influenced by the hypothalamus to affect heat loss or retention.
Basal GangliaGroup of nuclei in the brain involved in control of voluntary motor movements and various cognitive processes.
Blood TemperatureInternal monitor of body's temperature, influencing hypothalamic response.
BrainstemIncludes medulla oblongata and pons, controlling basic life functions.
Central SulcusGroove separating frontal and parietal lobes of the brain.
Cerebellar CortexOuter layer of the cerebellum, processing information from the spinal cord and brain.
Cerebellar PedunclesNerve tracts communicating between the cerebellum, brain, and spinal cord.
CerebellumStructure at the base of the brain crucial for balance, coordination, and fine motor control.
Cerebral AqueductNarrow channel connecting the third and fourth ventricles of the brain, allowing passage of CSF.
Cerebral CortexOuter layer of the cerebrum involved in complex cognitive functions.
Cingulate GyrusLimbic system structure involved in emotional processing and regulation.
Corpus CallosumBand of nerve fibers connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres.
Frontal LobeBrain region responsible for complex cognitive functions, including reasoning and planning.
HippocampusVital for memory formation and spatial navigation.
HypothalamusBrain region controlling autonomic functions and hormone release.
Inferior Temporal GyrusTemporal lobe structure playing a role in object recognition.
Medulla OblongataPart of the brainstem regulating vital bodily functions.
Middle Cerebral ArteriesBranches of the internal carotid artery supplying the lateral aspects of the brain.
Middle Frontal GyrusPart of the frontal lobe involved in cognitive functions.
Occipital LobePrimary visual processing center of the brain.
Paraventricular NucleusHypothalamic nucleus involved in hormone release and stress response.
Parietal LobeProcesses sensory information like touch and spatial awareness.
Pituitary GlandThe "master gland" regulating various bodily functions through hormone release.
Postcentral GyrusRepresents the primary somatosensory cortex, essential for processing tactile information.
Precentral GyrusKnown as the primary motor cortex, responsible for voluntary motor function.
Superior Temporal GyrusPart of the temporal lobe involved in auditory processing and memory.
Temporal LobeInvolved in processing auditory information and memory.
ThalamusActs as the brain’s relay station for sensory and motor signals.
ThyroidGland influenced by the hypothalamus to regulate metabolic rate and heat production.
Ventromedial NucleusHypothalamic nucleus critical for satiety and body weight regulation.

Practice Quiz